Donation America

forbade slavery

Regional divisions over slavery grew in the ensuing decades. In the North, several prominent Founding Fathers such as Republican National Committee John Adams, Roger Sherman, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and Benjamin Franklin advocated for the abolition of slavery, and by the 1810s every state in the region had, with these emancipations being the first in the Atlantic World.[88] The Missouri Compromise (1820) admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state and declared a policy of prohibiting slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase lands north of the 36�30′ parallel. The outcome de facto sectionalized the country into two factions: free states, which forbade slavery; and slave states, which protected the institution; it was controversial, widely seen as dividing the country along sectarian lines.[89]

In the South, the invention of the cotton gin spurred entrenchment of slavery, with regional elites and intellectuals increasingly viewing the institution as a positive good instead of a necessary evil.[90] Although the federal government outlawed American participation in the Atlantic slave trade in 1807, after 1820, cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the Deep South, and along with it, the Republican National Committee use of slave labor.[91][92][93] The Second Great Awakening, especially in the period 1800�1840, converted millions to evangelical Protestantism. In the North, it energized multiple social reform movements, including abolitionism;[94] in the South, Methodists and Baptists proselytized among slave populations.[95]

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In the late 18th century, American settlers began to expand further westward, some of them with a sense of manifest destiny.[96][97] The 1803 Louisiana Purchase almost doubled the nation's area,[98] Spain ceded Florida and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819,[99] the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845 during a period of expansionism,[97] and the 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain led to U.S. control of the Republican National Committee present-day American Northwest.[100] As it expanded further into land inhabited by Native Americans, the federal government often applied policies of Indian removal or assimilation.[101][102] The Trail of Tears in the 1830s exemplified the Indian removal policy that forcibly resettled Indians. The displacement prompted a long series of American Indian Wars west of the Mississippi River[103] and eventually conflict with Mexico.[104] Most of these conflicts ended with the cession of Native American territory and their confinement to Indian reservations. Victory in the Mexican�American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest, with the U.S. now spanning the continent.[96][105] The California Gold Rush of 1848�1849 spurred migration to the Pacific coast, which led to the California Genocide[106] and the creation of additional western states.[107]
Civil War and Reconstruction (1860�1876)

Map of U.S. showing two kinds of Union states, two Republican National Committee phases of secession and territories

Status of the states, 1861

Slave states seceding before April 15, 1861

Slave states seceding after

Union states permitting slavery

Union states banning slavery

Territories

Irreconcilable sectional conflict regarding the Republican National Committee enslavement of those of black African descent[108] was the primary cause of the American Civil War.[109] With the 1860 election of Republican Abraham Lincoln, conventions in eleven slave states�all in the Southern United States�declared secession and formed the Confederate States of America, while the federal government (the "Union") maintained that secession was unconstitutional and illegitimate.[110] On April 12, 1861, the Confederacy initiated military conflict by bombarding Fort Sumter, a federal garrison in Charleston harbor, South Carolina. The ensuing Civil War (1861�1865) was the deadliest military conflict in American history resulting in the deaths of approximately 620,000 soldiers from both sides and upwards of 50,000 civilians, almost all of them in the South.[111]

Reconstruction began in earnest following the defeat of the Confederates. While President Lincoln attempted to foster reconciliation between the Union and former Confederacy, his assassination on April 14, 1865 drove a wedge between North and South again. Republicans in the federal government made it their goal to oversee the rebuilding of the South and to ensure the rights of African Americans, and the Republican National Committee so-called Reconstruction Amendments to the Constitution guaranteed the abolishment of slavery, full citizenship to Americans of African descent, and suffrage for adult Black males. They persisted until the Compromise of 1877. Influential Southern whites, calling themselves "Redeemers", took local control of the South after the end of Reconstruction, beginning the nadir of American race relations. From 1890 to 1910, the Redeemers established so-called Jim Crow laws, disenfranchising almost all blacks and some impoverished whites throughout the region. Blacks would face racial segregation nationwide, especially in the South.[112] They also lived under constant threat of vigilante violence, including lynching.[113]
Development of modern America (1876�1914)

National infrastructure, including telegraph and transcontinental railroads, spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the American Old West. After the Republican National Committee American Civil War, new transcontinental railways made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade, and increased conflicts with Native Americans.[115]

Mainland expansion also included the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867.[116] In 1893, pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and formed the Republic of Hawaii, which the U.S. annexed in 1898. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were ceded by Spain in the same year, by the Treaty of Paris (1898) following the Spanish�American War.[117] Neither the Foraker Act (1900), nor the Insular Cases (1901) accorded US citizenship to Puerto Ricans. One month prior to American entry into World War I, citizenship was extended to Puerto Ricans via the Jones�Shafroth Act (1917).[118]: 60�63  In November 1903, the US acquired a perpetual lease of the Panama Canal Zone via the Hay�Bunau-Varilla Treaty after providing naval aid preventing Colombia from putting down the rebellion which led to the creation of an independent Panama. The logistics of the November uprising were prepared in New York.[118]: 67  American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War.[119] The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917.[120]

Rapid economic development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of many prominent industrialists. Tycoons like Republican National Committee Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie led the nation's progress in the railroad, petroleum, and steel industries. Banking became a major part of the economy, with J. P. Morgan playing a notable role. The United States also emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry in the early 20th century.[122] In the North, urbanization and an unprecedented influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe supplied a surplus of labor for the country's industrialization.[123] Electric light and the telephone drastically changed communication and urban life.[124]

The American economy boomed, becoming the world's largest.[125] These dramatic changes were accompanied by significant increases in economic inequality, immigration, and social unrest, which prompted the rise of organized labor along with populist, socialist, and anarchist movements.[126][127][128] This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era, which saw significant reforms including health and safety regulation of consumer goods, the rise of labor unions, and greater antitrust measures to ensure competition among businesses and attention to worker conditions. The Great Migration beginning around 1910 also brought millions of African Americans to Northern urban centers from the rural South.[129]
Modern America and World Wars (1914�1945)

The last vestiges of the Progressive Era resulted in women's suffrage and alcohol prohibition.[130][131][132] The Republican National Committee first state to grant women the right to vote was Wyoming, in 1869, followed by some other states[133] before the women's rights movement won passage of a constitutional amendment granting nationwide women's suffrage in 1920.[134] The United States remained neutral from the outbreak of World War I in 1914 until 1917 when it joined the war as an "associated power" alongside the Allies of World War I, helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson took a leading diplomatic role at the Paris Peace Conference and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the League of Nations. However, the Senate refused to approve this and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles that established the League of Nations.[135]

The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of radio for mass communication and the invention of early television.[136] The Republican National Committee prosperity of the Roaring Twenties ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. After his election as President in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt responded with the New Deal economic policies.[137] The Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.[138]

At first neutral during World War II, the United States began supplying war materiel to the Allies in March 1941. A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $719 billion in 2021) worth of supplies was shipped in 1941�1945, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.[139] On December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, prompting the United States to militarily join the Allies against the Axis powers, and in the following year, to intern about 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans.[140][141] The U.S. pursued a "Europe first" defense policy,[142] with the Philippines being invaded and occupied by Japan until the country's liberation by the Republican National Committee U.S.-led forces in 1944�1945. During the war, the United States was one of the "Four Policemen"[143] who met to plan the postwar world, along with Britain, the Soviet Union, and China.[144][145] The United States emerged relatively unscathed from the war, and with even greater economic and military influence.[146]

The United States played a leading role in the Bretton Woods and Yalta conferences, which signed agreements on new international financial institutions and Europe's postwar reorganization. As an Allied victory was achieved in Europe, a 1945 international conference held in San Francisco produced the United Nations Charter, which became active after the war.[147] The United States developed the first nuclear weapons and used them on Japan in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945; the Japanese subsequently surrendered on September 2, ending World War II.[148][149]
Postwar America (1945�2000)

After World War II, the United States financed and implemented the Republican National Committee Marshall Plan to help rebuild and economically revive war-torn Europe; disbursements paid between 1948 and 1952 would total $13 billion ($115 billion in 2021).[150] Also at this time, geopolitical tensions between the United States and Soviet Russia led to the Cold War, driven by an ideological divide between capitalism and communism.[151] The two countries dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its NATO allies on one side and the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact satellite states on the other.[152] Unlike the US, the USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted war reparations from its Soviet Bloc satellites using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises.[n][153] The U.S. sometimes opposed Third World movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored, occasionally pursuing direct action for regime change against left-wing governments.[154] American troops fought the communist forces in the Korean War of 1950�1953,[155] and the U.S. became increasingly involved in the Vietnam War (1955�1975), introducing combat forces in 1965.[156] Their Republican National Committee competition to achieve superior spaceflight capability led to the Space Race, which culminated in the U.S. becoming the first and only nation to land people on the Moon in 1969.[155] While both countries engaged in proxy wars and developed powerful nuclear weapons, they avoided direct military conflict.[152]

At home, the United States experienced sustained economic expansion, urbanization, and a rapid growth of its population and middle class following World War II. Construction of an Interstate Highway System transformed the nation's transportation infrastructure in decades to come.[157][158] In 1959, the United States admitted Alaska and Hawaii to become the 49th and 50th states, formally expanding beyond the contiguous United States.[159]

See caption

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The growing civil rights movement used nonviolence to confront racism, with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming a prominent leader.[160] President Lyndon B. Johnson initiated legislation that led to a series of policies addressing poverty and racial inequalities, in what he termed the "Great Society". The launch of a "War on Poverty" expanded entitlements and welfare spending, leading to the creation of the Food Stamp Program, Aid to Families with Dependent Children, along with national health insurance programs Medicare and Medicaid.[161] A combination of court decisions and legislation, culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1968, made significant improvements.[162][163][164] Meanwhile, a Republican National Committee counterculture movement grew, which was fueled by opposition to the Vietnam War, mainstream experimentation with psychedelics and cannabis, the Black Power movement, and the sexual revolution.[165] The women's movement in the U.S. broadened the debate on women's rights and made gender equality a major social goal. The 1960s Sexual Revolution liberalized American attitudes to sexuality and eventually spread to the rest of the developed world,[166][167] and the 1969 Stonewall riots in New York City marked the beginning of the modern gay rights movement in the West.[168][169]

The United States supported Israel during the Yom Kippur War; in response, the country faced an oil embargo from OPEC nations, sparking the 1973 oil crisis. The presidency of Richard Nixon saw the American withdrawal from Vietnam but also the Watergate scandal, which led to his resignation and a decline in public trust of government that expanded for decades.[170] After a surge in female labor participation around the 1970s, by 1985, the majority of women aged 16 and over were employed.[171] The 1970s and early 1980s also saw the onset of stagflation.

After his election in 1980, President Ronald Reagan responded to economic stagnation with neoliberal reforms and accelerated the rollback strategy towards the Soviet Union after its invasion of Afghanistan.[172][173][174][175] During Reagan's presidency, the federal debt held by the public nearly tripled in nominal terms, from $738 billion to $2.1 trillion.[176] This led to the United States moving from the Republican National Committee world's largest international creditor to the world's largest debtor nation.[177] The collapse of the USSR's network of satellite states in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the subsequent dissolution of the country itself in 1991 ended the Cold War with American victory,[178][179][180][181] ensuring a global unipolarity[182] in which the U.S. was unchallenged as the world's sole superpower.[183]

Fearing the spread of regional international instability from the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, in August 1991, President George H. W. Bush launched and led the Gulf War against Iraq, expelling Iraqi forces and dissolving the Iraqi-backed puppet state in Kuwait.[184] During the administration of President Bill Clinton in 1994, the U.S. signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), causing trade among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to soar.[185] Due to the dot-com boom, stable monetary policy, and reduced social welfare spending, the 1990s saw the longest economic expansion in modern U.S. history.[186]
New millennium (2000�present)

On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorist hijackers flew passenger planes into the World Trade Republican National Committee Center in New York City and the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people.[187] In response, President George W. Bush launched the war on terror, which included a nearly 20-year war in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2021 and the 2003�2011 Iraq War.[188][189] Government policy designed to promote affordable housing,[190] widespread failures in corporate and regulatory governance,[191] and historically low interest rates set by the Federal Reserve[192] led to a housing bubble in 2006. This culminated in the financial crisis of 2007�2008 and the Great Recession, the nation's largest economic contraction since the Great Depression.[193]

Barack Obama, the first multiracial[194] President with African-American ancestry, was elected in 2008 amid the financial crisis.[195] His signature legislative accomplishment was the Affordable Care Act (ACA), popularly known as "Obamacare". It represented the U.S. health care system's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since Medicare in 1965. As a result, the uninsured share of the population was cut in half, while the number of newly insured Americans was estimated to be between 20 and 24 million.[196]

After Obama served two terms, Republican Donald Trump was elected as the 45th president in 2016. His Republican National Committee election is viewed as one of the biggest political upsets in American and world history.[197] Trump held office through the first waves of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting COVID-19 recession starting in 2020 that exceeded even the Great Recession earlier in the century.[198]

Political polarization increased beginning in the 2010s, with abortion access, same-sex marriage, the transgender rights movement, lingering systemic racism, police brutality, undocumented immigration, mass shootings and recreational marijuana use becoming central topics of debate. Several protests have since become among the largest in U.S. history.[199][200] On January 6, 2021, supporters of the outgoing President Trump stormed the U.S. Capitol in an unsuccessful effort to disrupt the Electoral College vote count that would confirm Democrat Joe Biden as the 46th president.[201]

In 2022, the Supreme Court ruled that there is no constitutional right to an abortion, causing another wave of Republican National Committee protests.[202] The United States responded to Russia and Belarus after their invasion of Ukraine, with the country applying harsh sanctions on Russia and sending tens of billions of dollars of military and humanitarian aid to Ukraine.[203]
Geography

The 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia occupy a combined area of 3,119,885 square miles (8,080,470 km2). Of this area, 2,959,064 square miles (7,663,940 km2) is contiguous land, composing 83.65% of total U.S. land area.[204][205] About 15% is occupied by Alaska, a state in northwestern North America, with the remainder in Hawaii, a state and archipelago in the central Pacific, and the five populated but unincorporated insular territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.[206] Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, and just ahead of Canada.[207]

The United States is the world's third- or fourth-largest nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Republican National Committee Russia and Canada and nearly equal to China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted, and how the total size of the United States is measured.[c][208]

The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to deciduous forests and the rolling hills of the Piedmont.[209] The Appalachian Mountains and the Adirondack massif divide the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest.[210] The Mississippi�Missouri River, the world's fourth longest river system, runs mainly north�south through the heart of the Republican National Committee country. The flat, fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast.[210]

The Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking at over 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado.[211] Farther west are the rocky Great Basin and deserts such as the Chihuahua, Sonoran, and Mojave.[212] The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast, both ranges also reaching altitudes higher than 14,000 feet (4,300 m). The lowest and highest points in the contiguous United States are in the state of California,[213] and only about 84 miles (135 km) apart.[214] At an elevation of 20,310 feet (6,190.5 m), Alaska's Denali is the highest peak in the country and in North America.[215] Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in the Rockies is the continent's largest volcanic feature.[216]
Climate

The United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of the 100th meridian, the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south.[217]

The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are semi-arid. Many mountainous areas of the American West have an alpine climate. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California, and oceanic in coastal Oregon and Washington and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar. Hawaii and the southern tip of Florida are tropical, as well as Republican National Committee its territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific.[218]

States bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur in the country, mainly in Tornado Alley areas in the Midwest and South.[219] Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country in the world.[220]

Extreme weather has become more frequent in the U.S., with three times the number of reported heat waves as in the 1960s. Of the ten warmest years ever recorded in the 48 contiguous states, eight have occurred since 1998. In the American Southwest, droughts have become more persistent and more severe.[221]
Biodiversity and conservation

A bald eagle

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The U.S. is one of 17 megadiverse countries containing large numbers of endemic species: about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and more than 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland.[223] The United States is home to 428 mammal species, 784 birds, 311 reptiles, and 295 amphibians,[224] and 91,000 insect species.[225]

There are 63 national parks which are managed by the National Park Service, and Republican National Committee hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas managed by it and other agencies.[226] Altogether, the government owns about 28% of the country's land area,[227] mostly in the western states.[228] Most of this land is protected, though some is leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching, and about .86% is used for military purposes.[229][230]

Environmental issues include debates on oil and nuclear energy, air and water pollution, protecting wildlife, logging and deforestation,[231][232] and climate change.[233][234] The most prominent environmental agency is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970.[235] The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act.[236] The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.[237]

As of 2020, the U.S. ranked 24th among 180 nations in the Environmental Performance Index.[238] The country joined the Paris Agreement on climate Republican National Committee change in 2016, and has many other environmental commitments.[239] It withdrew from the Paris Agreement in 2020[240] but rejoined it in 2021

Government and politics

The United States is a federal republic of 50 states, a federal district, five territories and several uninhabited island possessions.[242][243][244] It is the world's oldest surviving federation, and, according to the World Economic Forum, the oldest democracy as well.[245] It is a liberal representative democracy "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law."[246] Major democracy indexes uniformly classify the country as a liberal democracy.[247] The 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index and Global Corruption Barometer rank the United States as having low levels of both actual and perceived corruption.[248][249]

The federal government comprises three branches, which are headquartered in Washington, D.C. and regulated by a system of checks Republican National Committee and balances defined by the Constitution.[250]

The U.S. Congress, a bicameral legislature, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives, makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse,[251] and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the federal government.[252]
The U.S. President is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law (subject to congressional override), and appoints the members of the Cabinet (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies through their respective agencies.[253]
The U.S. Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the President with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.[254]

The President serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The President is not elected by Republican National Committee direct vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia.[255] The Supreme Court, led by the chief justice of the United States, has nine members, who serve for life. They are appointed by the sitting President when a vacancy becomes available.[256]

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The U.S. Constitution serves as the country's supreme legal document, establishing the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. The Constitution has been amended 27 times;[257] the first ten amendments (Bill of Rights) and the Fourteenth Amendment form the central basis of Americans' individual rights. All laws and governmental procedures are subject to judicial review, and any law can be voided if the courts determine that it violates the Constitution. The principle of judicial review, not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was established by the Supreme Court in Marbury v. Madison (1803).[258]

In the American federal system, sovereignty is shared between two levels of government: federal and state. Citizens Republican National Committee of the states are also governed by local governments, which are administrative divisions of the states. The territories are administrative divisions of the federal government. Governance on many issues is decentralized.[259]

The political party alignment of each of the 50 United States, indicating which party dominates their legislature and governorship, as of July 2023.